By 750 B.C., the city-state, or polis, was the fundamental political unit in ancient
Greece. A polis was made up of a city and its surrounding countryside, which
included numerous villages. Most city-states controlled between 50 and 500
square miles of territory. They were often home to fewer than 10,000 residents.
At the agora, or marketplace, or on a fortified hilltop called an acropolis
(uh•KRAHP•uh•lihs), citizens gathered to discuss city government.
Greek Political Structures Greek city-states had many different forms of
government. (See the chart on page 128.) In some, a single person, called a king,
ruled in a government called a monarchy. Others adopted an aristocracy
(AR•ih•STAHK•ruh•see), a government ruled by a small group of noble,
landowning families. These very rich families often gained political power after
serving in a king’s military cavalry. Later, as trade expanded, a new class of
wealthy merchants and artisans emerged in some cities. When these groups
became dissatisfied with aristocratic rule, they sometimes took power or shared
it with the nobility. They formed an oligarchy, a government ruled by a few
powerful people.
Tyrants Seize Power In many city-states, repeated clashes occurred between
rulers and the common people. Powerful individuals, usually nobles or other
wealthy citizens, sometimes seized control of the government by appealing to the
common people for support. These rulers were called tyrants. Unlike today,
tyrants generally were not considered harsh and cruel. Rather, they were looked
upon as leaders who would work for the interests of the ordinary people. Once
in power, for example, tyrants often set up building programs to provide jobs and
housing for their supporters.The idea of representative government also began to take root in some city-states,
particularly Athens. Like other city-states, Athens went through power struggles
between rich and poor. However, Athenians avoided major political upheavals by
making timely reforms. Athenian reformers moved toward democracy, rule by the
people. In Athens, citizens participated directly in political decision making.
Building Democracy The first step toward democracy came when a nobleman
named Draco took power. In 621 B.C., Draco developed a legal code based on the
idea that all Athenians, rich and poor, were equal under the law. Draco’s code dealt
very harshly with criminals, making death the punishment for practically every
crime. It also upheld such practices as debt slavery, in which debtors worked as
slaves to repay their debts.
More far-reaching democratic reforms were introduced by Solon (SO•luhn),
who came to power in 594 B.C. Stating that no citizen should own another citizen,
Solon outlawed debt slavery. He organized all Athenian citizens into four social
classes according to wealth. Only members of the top three classes could hold
political office. However, all citizens, regardless of class, could participate in the
Athenian assembly. Solon also introduced the legal concept that any citizen could
bring charges against wrongdoers.
Around 500 B.C., the Athenian leader Cleisthenes (KLYS•thuh•NEEZ) introduced
further reforms. He broke up the power of the nobility by organizing citizens into ten
groups based on where they lived rather than on their wealth. He also increased the
power of the assembly by allowing all citizens to submit laws for debate and passage.
Cleisthenes then created the Council of Five Hundred. This body proposed laws and
counseled the assembly. Council members were chosen by lot, or at random.
The reforms of Cleisthenes allowed Athenian citizens to participate in a limited
democracy. However, citizenship was restricted to a relatively small number of
Athenians. Only free adult male property owners born in Athens were considered
citizens. Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from citizenship and had
few rights.
Athenian Education For the most part, only the sons of wealthy families received
formal education. Schooling began around the age of seven and largely prepared
boys to be good citizens. They studied reading, grammar, poetry, history, mathematics,
and music. Because citizens were expected to debate issues in the assembly,
boys also received training in logic and public speaking. And since the Greeks
believed that it was important to train and develop the body, part of each day was spent in athletic activities. When they got older, boys went to military school to
help them prepare for another important duty of citizenship—defending Athens.
Athenian girls did not attend school. Rather, they were educated at home by
their mothers and other female members of the household. They learned about
child-rearing, weaving cloth, preparing meals, managing the household, and other
skills that helped them become good wives and mothers. Some women were able
to take their education farther and learned to read and write. A few even became
accomplished writers. Even so, most women had very little to do with Athenian life
outside the boundaries of family and home.Located in the southern part of Greece known as the Peloponnesus
(PEHL•uh•puh•NEE•sus), Sparta was nearly cut off from the rest of Greece by the
Gulf of Corinth. (See the map on page 121.) In outlook and values, Sparta
contrasted sharply with the other city-states, Athens in particular. Instead of a
democracy, Sparta built a military state.
Sparta Dominates Messenians Around 725 B.C., Sparta conquered the
neighboring region of Messenia and took over the land. The Messenians became
helots (HEHL•uhts), peasants forced to stay on the land they worked. Each year,
the Spartans demanded half of the helots’ crops. In about 650 B.C., the Messenians,
resentful of the Spartans’ harsh rule, revolted. The Spartans, who were outnumbered
eight to one, just barely put down the revolt. Shocked at their vulnerability,
they dedicated themselves to making Sparta a strong city-stateSparta’s Government and Society Spartan government had several branches. An
assembly, which was composed of all Spartan citizens, elected officials and voted
on major issues. The Council of Elders, made up of 30 older citizens, proposed
laws on which the assembly voted. Five elected officials carried out the laws
passed by the assembly. These men also controlled education and prosecuted court
cases. In addition, two kings ruled over Sparta’s military forces.
The Spartan social order consisted of several groups. The first were citizens
descended from the original inhabitants of the region. This group included the ruling
families who owned the land. A second group, noncitizens who were free,
worked in commerce and industry. The helots, at the bottom of Spartan society,
were little better than slaves. They worked in the fields or as house servants.
Spartan Daily Life From around 600 until 371 B.C., Sparta had the most powerful
army in Greece. However, the Spartan people paid a high price for their military
supremacy. All forms of individual expression were discouraged. As a result,
Spartans did not value the arts, literature, or other artistic and intellectual pursuits.
Spartans valued duty, strength, and discipline over freedom, individuality, beauty,
and learning.
Since men were expected to serve in the army until the age of 60, their daily life
centered on military training. Boys left home when they were 7 and moved into
army barracks, where they stayed until they reached the age of 30. They spent their
days marching, exercising, and fighting. They undertook these activities in all
weathers, wearing only light tunics and no shoes. At night, they slept without
blankets on hard benches. Their daily diet consisted of little more than a bowl of
coarse black porridge. Those who were not satisfied were encouraged to steal food.
Such training produced tough, resourceful soldiers.
Spartan girls also led hardy lives. They received some military training, and they
also ran, wrestled, and played sports. Like boys, girls were taught to put service to
Sparta above everything—even love of family. A legend says that Spartan women
told husbands and sons going to war to “come back with your shield or on it.” As
adults, Spartan women had considerable freedom, especially in running the family
estates when their husbands were on active military service. Such freedom surprised
men from other Greek city-states. This was particularly true of Athens,
where women were expected to remain out of sight and quietly raise children.Danger of a helot revolt led Sparta to become a military state. Struggles between
rich and poor led Athens to become a democracy. The greatest danger of all—
invasion by Persian armies—moved Sparta and Athens alike to their greatest glory.
A New Kind of Army Emerges During the Dorian Age, only the rich could afford
bronze spears, shields, breastplates, and chariots. Thus, only the rich served in
armies. Iron later replaced bronze in the manufacture of weapons. Harder than
bronze, iron was more common and therefore cheaper. Soon, ordinary citizens
could afford to arm and defend themselves. The shift from bronze to iron weapons
made possible a new kind of army composed not only of the rich but also of merchants,
artisans, and small landowners. The foot soldiers of this army, called
hoplites, stood side by side, each holding a spear in one hand and a shield in the
other. This fearsome formation, or phalanx (FAY•LANGKS), became the most
powerful fighting force in the ancient world.
Battle at Marathon The Persian Wars, between Greece and the Persian Empire,
began in Ionia on the coast of Anatolia. (See the map on page 132.) Greeks had
long been settled there, but around 546 B.C., the Persians conquered the area. When
Comparing
How would you
compare the ideals
of Spartan and
Athenian
societies?
Classical Greece 131
Ionian Greeks revolted, Athens sent ships and soldiers to their aid. The Persian king
Darius the Great defeated the rebels and then vowed to destroy Athens in revenge.
In 490 B.C., a Persian fleet carried 25,000 men across the Aegean Sea and landed
northeast of Athens on a plain called Marathon. There, 10,000 Athenians, neatly
arranged in phalanxes, waited for them. Vastly outnumbered, the Greek soldiers
charged. The Persians, who wore light armor and lacked training in this kind of
land combat, were no match for the disciplined Greek phalanx. After several hours,
the Persians fled the battlefield. The Persians lost more than 6,000 men. In contrast,
Athenian casualties numbered fewer than 200.Pheidippides Brings News Though the Athenians won the battle, their city now
stood defenseless. According to tradition, army leaders chose a young runner named
Pheidippides (fy•DIP•uh•DEEZ) to race back to Athens. He brought news of the
Persian defeat so that Athenians would not give up the city without a fight. Dashing
the 26 miles from Marathon to Athens, Pheidippides delivered his message,
“Rejoice, we conquer.” He then collapsed and died. Moving rapidly from Marathon,
the Greek army arrived in Athens not long after. When the Persians sailed into the
harbor, they found the city heavily defended. They quickly put to sea in retreat.
Thermopylae and Salamis Ten years later, in 480 B.C., Darius the Great’s son
and successor, Xerxes (ZURK•seez), assembled an enormous invasion force to
crush Athens. The Greeks were badly divided. Some city-states agreed to fight the
Persians. Others thought it wiser to let
Xerxes destroy Athens and return home.
Some Greeks even fought on the Persian
side. Consequently, Xerxes’ army met
no resistance as it marched down the
eastern coast of Greece.
When Xerxes came to a narrow
mountain pass at Thermopylae
(thur•MAHP•uh•lee), 7,000 Greeks,
including 300 Spartans, blocked his
way. Xerxes assumed that his troops
would easily push the Greeks aside.
However, he underestimated their fighting
ability. The Greeks stopped the
Persian advance for three days. Only a
traitor’s informing the Persians about a
secret path around the pass ended their
brave stand. Fearing defeat, the Spartans
held the Persians back while the other
Greek forces retreated. The Spartans’valiant sacrifice—all were killed—
made a great impression on all Greeks.
Meanwhile, the Athenians debated
how best to defend their city.
Themistocles, an Athenian leader, convinced
them to evacuate the city and
fight at sea. They positioned their fleet
in a narrow channel near the island of
Salamis (SAL•uh•mihs), a few miles
southwest of Athens. After setting fire
to Athens, Xerxes sent his warships toblock both ends of the channel. However, the channel was
very narrow, and the Persian ships had difficulty turning.
Smaller Greek ships armed with battering rams attacked,
puncturing the hulls of many Persian warships. Xerxes
watched in horror as more than one-third of his fleet
sank. He faced another defeat in 479 B.C., when the Greeks
crushed the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea
(pluh•TEE•uh). After this major setback, the Persians were
always on the defensive.
The following year, several Greek city-states formed an
alliance called the Delian (DEE•lee•uhn) League. (The
alliance took its name from Delos, the island in the Aegean
Sea where it had its headquarters.) League members continued
to press the war against the Persians for several more
years. In time, they drove the Persians from the territories
surrounding Greece and ended the threat of future attacks.
Consequences of the Persian Wars With the Persian
threat ended, all the Greek city-states felt a new sense of
confidence and freedom. Athens, in particular, basked in the
glory of the Persian defeat. During the 470s, Athens
emerged as the leader of the Delian League, which had
grown to some 200 city-states. Soon thereafter, Athens
began to use its power to control the other league members.
It moved the league headquarters to Athens, and used military
force against members that challenged its authority. In
time, these city-states became little more than provinces of
a vast Athenian empire. The prestige of victory over the
Persians and the wealth of the Athenian empire set the stage
for a dazzling burst of creativity in Athens. The city was
entering its brief golden age.